This subject reviews the principles of operating systems and Network Appliance Architectures currently used in internetworking, such as UNIX, current MS 200x releases, and Cisco IOS for routers. It examines how to harden an OS against attack. It also covers threats to network appliances and hosts, especially OS vulnerabilities, e.g. buffer overflows, but also considers bugs, application vulnerabilities and network protocol weaknesses, and counters to these threats through improved OS or hardware designs, or through processes such as patching.